Activity 7.5

Paul Tough, author of the book How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity, and the Hidden Power of Character, was a guest on the “Back to School” edition of the radio show “This American Life.”  The discussion centered on the concept of what kids should be learning in school.  Schools focus on cognitive development and Tough suggested that learning is more than cognitive development and recommends that schools teach non-cognitive skills. 

What are non-cognitive skills and how are they beneficial in helping people succeed in life?  Tough defines non-cognitive skills as soft skills, social skills, or personality (character) traits.  Through various research studies, non-cognitive skills have proven to assist people in a variety of ways that result in success.  The skills of self-control, self-regulation, conscientiousness, delayed gratification, and controlling temper are necessary for a learner to be able to experience cognitive development.  The good news is non-cognitive skills can be taught and shaped even after the formative childhood years. 

When children grow up in an environment with adverse conditions, this effects the way the brain develops due to the continuous stress that is experienced by the individual.  If the parent and child develop an attachment relationship, this may modify and combat the negative effects of the stressful environment.  The research suggest several methods and interventions that have proven to be successful in assisting with non-cognitive development.  The skills of the parents play a key role and by the parent(s) and child developing attachment, confidence, and connection this will assist in combating how the negative effects of the child’s environment affects the developing brain. Another intervention is for adolescents to receive training (coaching) in how to develop non-cognitive skills.

Tough’s view of the development of non-cognitive skills fits directly into the social cognitive theoretical framework.  I think James and Pajares would support Tough’s view of the need to develop non-cognitive skills. Pajares (2005) explains, “in school, teachers work to improve the competence and confidence of the students in their charge.  They can accomplish this by working to improve their students’ emotional states and to correct their faulty self-beliefs and habits of thinking (personal factors), improve students’ academic skills and self-regulatory practices (behavior), and alter the school and classroom structures that may work to undermine student success (environmental factors)” (pp. 340-341).   This idea of teaching the learner non-cognitive skills is supported by James (1899/2001), “you should regard your professional task as if it consisted chiefly and essentially in training the pupil to behavior; taking behavior, not in the narrow sense of his manners, but in the very widest possible sense, as including every possible sort of fit reaction to the circumstances into which he may find himself brought by the vicissitudes of life” (pp. 13-14). 

Vygotsky’s social constructivism theory and Bandura’ social cognitive theory have complementary components.  They both agree on the social nature of learning, and the effects that people (who serve as models) in the environment have on the learner and the process of learning.  I think Bandura’s social cognitive theory is the closest theory that aligns with the views of Tough.  “In addition to promoting cognitive and behavioral competencies, modeling influences were shown to alter motivation, create and modify emotional proclivities, serve as social prompts that activate, channel, and support given styles of behavior, and shape images of reality” (Bandura, 2011, p. 2). 

According to Tough, failure in learning occurs when teachers and parents do not actively teach non-cognitive skills.  Social skills, soft skills, and personality traits are necessary skills that affect the success level of an individual.  “The ‘nature,’ the ‘character,’ of an individual means really nothing but the habitual form of his associations.  To break up bad associations or wrong ones, to build others in, to guide the associative tendencies into the most fruitful channels, is the educator’s principal task” (James, 1899/2001, p. 42).  I think James and Tough would agree that success is dependent on the character development of the individual, and that is part of the learning process that is necessary for someone to reach their fullest potential.  Skinner (1984) would advocate that the failure of American education is due to unclear learning goals, expectations for students to learn at the same rate, lack of utilization of “teaching machines,” and schools of education failure to teach what teachers need to know.

Tough would promote that the ingredients for success are teaching the non-cognitive skills (social skills, soft skills, personality/character traits).  These skills can be taught and thus reduce inequality by making individuals more equipped for success.  Pajares (2005) supports the teaching of non-cognitive skills by stating, “in this social cognitive perspective, individuals are viewed as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-regulating rather than as reactive organisms shaped by environmental forces or driven by concealed inner impulses” (p. 340).   

Questions:

How is success defined?  Is the definition different for each person based on their background, experiences, culture, and society?

Cognitive skills are measured using standardized test.  How are non-cognitive skills measured?

What role does social class play in determining an individual’s self-efficacy skills?  Is this an issue that should concern teachers?

Are there differences when applying the social cognitive theory to the adult learner versus the adolescent learner? 

Activity 7.4

Activity 7.3

“Life in the cyberworld is enhancing the primacy and reach of symbolic modeling” (Bandura, 2011, p. 4).  Thinking about this quote, are there any cautions or problems associated with the symbolic modeling that transpires on the Internet?

Bandura’s social cognitive theory identifies social modeling through observational learning as a key foundation of the theory.  One of the misconceptions cited is that modeling does not facilitate learning and only allows one to mimic the example.  In addition, the myths stated that modeling does not develop cognitive skills or creative ability.   

The importance of the behavior of modeling and the influence it has on self-efficacy is illustrated in Unequal Childhoods written by Annette Lareau.  In her longitudinal ethnographic study on race, class, and family life, Lareau’s study involved eighty-eight children ages nine to ten years old with twelve of the children highlighted in the book.  The participants selected represented middle-class, working-class, and poor families.  The study shows how social class alters the organization of daily life, interactions between families and institutions, language use, and parenting styles.  Lareau identifies how social class shaped the way parents raised their children.  The results showed that children were influenced by parenting, modeling, and environment, and these were keys in determining the future direction (success) of the children.  The children in middle-class families predominately went to college, graduated, and pursued successful careers.  On the other hand, the children in working-class and poor families rarely went to college and reported struggles in their pursuit of successful lives.  According to Lareau (2011), “in America, social class backgrounds frame and transform individuals” (p. 343).  

The study by Lareau was conducted under the theoretical understanding of Pierre Bourdieu who studied the socialization process in relation to habitus, capital, and fields (Lareau, 2011).  In looking at this study from the theoretical lens of social cognitive theory, it demonstrate how an individual’s success may be determined by the observational learning that transpires in the family structure and the influence that has on an individual’s self-efficacy.  Bandura (2011) states, “modeling is a universalized human capacity.  But what is modeled, how modeling influences are structured, and the purposes it serves varies in different cultural milieus” (p. 6). 

Environments and social systems influence human behavior through psychological mechanisms of the self system.  Hence, social cognitive theory posits that factors such as economic conditions, socioeconomic status, and educational and familial structures do not affect human behavior directly.  Instead, they affect it to the degree that they influence people’s aspirations, self-efficacy beliefs, personal standards, emotional states, and other self-regulatory influences. (Pajares, 2002, para. 7)

Laureau’s research also connects with Paul Tough and his strategies on how to assist learners who have adverse childhood experiences.  Tough advocates that teaching non-cognitive skills (social skills, soft skills, personality and character traits) will assist learners in their pursuit of success. 

“Modeling involves abstracting the information conveyed by specific exemplars about the structure and the underlying principles governing the behavior rather than simply mimicking the specific exemplars” (Bandura, 2011, p. 2).  Four years ago I was asked to take over an area at the college that was struggling and needed a different leadership approach.  When I discussed this opportunity with my mentor, I asked what I would need to do to facilitate change in this area.  The advice was simple, “model the behavior you expect.”  Of course, that was not the only thing that needed to transpire, but it is a good example of the power of modeling.  I embraced the advice and the role of serving as a model.  “Observational learning is governed by the process of attention, retention, production, and motivation” (Pajares, 2002, para. 11).  I invested an enormous amount of effort into serving as a coping model, concentrated on verbal messages and social persuasions, awareness of vicarious experiences of observing, and the power of social modeling.  The result was a dramatic change in the department. 

References:

Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley and Los Angeles,

CA: University of California Press.

Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy.  Retrieved from

http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/eff.html

Activity 7.2

This summer I started a new exercise class (boot camp/circuit training).  I was excited about joining this class, and since I go to the gym daily I had high self-efficacy that this would be a positive rewarding experience.  Based on a self-evaluation I concluded that I am in relatively good shape, have a moderate level of endurance and strength, and enjoy the experience of group exercise classes.

I showed up the first day, and I was the oldest person in the class (at least by 20 years).  My self-efficacy changed from strong to weak in a matter of seconds.  This was due to my interpretation of this situation and my perceived failure to perform against this much younger group.  My self-judgment produced thought patterns that I was old, not physically capable, and lacked the ability to perform in this environment.

The class started, and I reluctantly participated with a little anxiety and a lack of self-esteem.  The instructor created a positive environment for the class and challenged the students based on their ability. We were prompted to perform at a level a little higher than we thought we could perform, but not greater than our ability to accomplish.  This technique is illustrated through the following statement related to academics by Pajares (2005), “academic work should be hard enough that it energizes, not so hard that it paralyzes” (p. 344). 

Throughout the class, whenever I felt that I was not able to keep going, the instructor offered words of encouragement and praise for my effort.  Pajares (2005) stated, “whether at home or at school, rather than praising for ability, make it a habit to praise the genuine effort and persistence the young person puts forth” (p. 350).  The instructor’s praise of my effort always gave me renewed strength and determination to push a little harder and exert more energy and effort in the activities.

When the instructor presented new exercises and activities, she provided instrumental help that afforded me enough direction to succeed on my own.  She also provided options for advanced, intermediate, and low intensity work outs.  This allowed me to achieve success at my level and enhance my feelings of confidence.  “Students’ self-efficacy beliefs develop primarily through actual success on challenging academic tasks” (Pajares, 2005, p. 344). 

The class is small, and I learned the names of all the other participants.  After a few weeks, I noticed an environment of collective efficacy developing as we all encouraged and cheered each other on to reach our personal goals.  The differences in ability levels were not a factor.  The goals were individual, and everyone was supportive.  My self-efficacy began to reach the level it was prior to starting the class. 

After the first day of this new class, I had thoughts about not coming back.  My confidence, self-belief, and motivation had suffered due to this perceived adversity.  I think Pajares would agree with James (1899/2001), “when all is said and done, and your best efforts are made, it will probably remain true that the result will depend more on a certain native tone or temper in the pupil’s psychological constitution than on anything else” (p. 89).  Pajares stated, “personal agency is about will, drive, and self-determination” (p. 361).  Of course, the end of the story is that I remained in the class.  I have thoroughly enjoyed this new exercise class and my behaviors, cognitive (personal) factors, and the environment were all instrumental in my self-efficacy.

My personal story can be compared to many college freshmen who lack self-efficacy when they enter college. Without a supportive classroom environment, they may end up not completing their freshman year.  As noted by Vincent Tinto (1993), the majority of students depart from an institution during their first year.  “The character of one’s experience in that year does much to shape subsequent persistence” (Tinto, 1993, p. 14).  It is critical that instructors who work with first year college students understand the basic principles of social cognitive theory.  Behavior, cognitive factors, and environment play an important role in persistence.  

Reference:

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. Chicago,

IL: The University of Chicago Press. 

Activity 7.1

Triadic Reciprocality

                

Graphic Source: https://sites.google.com/a/nau.edu/educationallearningtheories/home/social-learning-thoery 

BEHAVIORAL FACTORS	COGNITIVE (PERSONAL) FACTORS	ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-Confidence -Competence -Effort -Attention -Retention -Creativity -Imitation -Modeling -Resilience -Persistence -Motivation -Interest -Academic Skills (goal setting, time management, organization, etc.) -Self-regulatory practices -Empowerment -Procrastination -Self-directed -Optimism/pessimism -Confidence /lack of confidence	-Values -Forethought -Pride -Satisfaction -Sense of Accomplishment -Feelings -Emotions (anxiety, stress, depression, and despair) -Habits of thinking -Verbal messages -Self-reflection -Self-esteem -Self-evaluation -Self-judgment -Self-efficacy -Self-beliefs	-Classroom structure -School structure -Family structure -Electronics (TV, videos, music, social media, Internet) -Neighborhood -Community -Friends, peers, teachers, parents, siblings, relatives, neighbors, child care providers, and  adults

According to social cognitive theory, human functioning is the result of the reciprocal interactive relationship among behavior, thinking, and the environment.

Activity 6.5

The accessibility of multiple electronic devices provides unlimited opportunities for interactions and access to information.  Carr (2011) explained how the overuse of technology has trained the brain to be distracted and thus affecting the ability to process information (learn) due to the inability to concentrate our attention.  Powers (2010) pointed out that the depth of our existence is suffering due to the failure (lack of self-regulation) to slow down and focus our thoughts.  I agree with Carr and Powers that the computer encourages busyness, information overload, dependence on other sources for thought, outsourcing memory, and constant interactions/connections.  James (1899/2001) explained education as, “…the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior” (p. 15).  Technology is changing the habits of behavior.  The long-term results may affect the brain’s ability to concentrate, make connections, and think. 

What is the cost or sacrifice that one pays when continually engaging in the multimedia rich world?  How do we self-regulate our attention in a way that will allow us to get back to engaging in the depth of experiences while balancing the multimedia technology?

Activity 6.4

The self-regulatory strategies discussed by Zimmerman (2002) such as goal-setting, self-confidence, learning strategies, time management, personal insight, and motivation are necessary applications for students to be successful lifelong problem solvers (learners).  James would agree that teaching self-regulatory strategies creates habits that facilitate learning.  “See to it now, I beg you, that you make freeman of your pupils by habituating them to act, whenever possible, under the notion of good” (James, 1899/2001, pp. 94-95).

Self-regulatory behaviors are critical for academic success in all students, but specifically for the first-year college students who are in a transitional stage of their education.  The first-year college student is moving from a highly controlled environment (work or school) to one that is highly independent.  One effective way to enhance student learning is through a first-year experience course that is designed to assist students in developing self-regulatory skills.  The course focuses on expectations of higher education, academic skill development (learning strategies), academic support services (seeking help from others), goal setting (personal and professional), and self-management skills (time and stress management, self-discipline, self-motivation).  Cueso (2003) stated, “research suggests that the cognitive and behavioral habits students develop during their first year of college may become their modus operandi for the entire college experience” (p. 272). Cuseo and James would agree that creating self-regulatory habits are vital to success in education.  “The more of the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set free for their own proper work” (James, 1899/2001, p. 34).

Reference:

Cueso, J. (2003). Comprehensive academic support for students during the first year of college.

In Kramer, G. L. & Associates (Eds.), Student academic services (pp. 271-309). San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Activity 6.3

Chapter 15 - The Will

Can behaviors become so habitual that we experience no free will?

Actions primarily occur out of habit with little thinking required and will is the secondary function of our actions.  James described two types of will, one being impulse (precipitate) response and the second being inhibition (obstructed) response.  James (1899/2001) stated, “voluntary action, then, is at all times a resultant of the compounding of our impulsions with our inhibitions” (p. 87).   To be able to act in a way that balances the impulsive and inhibited actions results in the character that the teacher should aim to duplicate in the learner.  As James (1899/2001) explained, “your task is to build up a character in your pupils; and a character, as I have so often said, consists in an organized set of habits of reaction” (p. 90).

The process of learning involves effort in the way of attention, and the habits formulated manage the will, belief, and attention toward learning.  I consider myself a “creature of habit” and my actions are a representation of my habits.  I consistently get up at the same time each day (4:30 a.m.), and this demonstrates my habitual actions.  There are many days when I would like to sleep later because it is raining, cold outside, or some other reason.  However, my impulses and inhibition that determine my free will are dominated by the involuntary actions of my habits.  The result is I get up at the time I have trained my body and mind to start the day.

“[Research] suggests that what we think of as free will is largely an illusion: much of the time, we are simply operating on automatic pilot, and the way we think and act – and how well we think and act on the spur of the moment – are a lot more susceptible to outside influences than we realize” (Gladwell, 2013).  James and Gladwell agree that free will plays a small part in an individual’s daily operations.  “Ninety-nine hundredths or, possibly, nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual, from rising in the morning to our lying down each night” (James, 1899/2001, p. 33).  This illustrates the enormous responsibility of the teacher in assisting the learner in developing and building the schemata of numerous ideas, maintaining voluntary attention, and creating habits that form behavior. 

Thus, are your pupils to be saved: first, by the stock of ideas with which you furnish them; second, by the amount of voluntary attention that they can exert in holding to the right ones, however unpalatable; and, third, by the several habits of acting definitely to these latter to which they have been successfully trained. (James, 1899/2001, pp. 91-92)  

Reference:

Gladwell, M. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/free-will?page=1

Activity 6.2

The videos discussed the process of problem solving from the perspective of a group approach and the viewpoint of instruction in the classroom.  The movie Apollo 13 illustrates a successful problem solving effort that took place after the memorable words by the Apollo 13 mission leader, “Houston we have a problem.”  The movie is based on the events that took place with the Apollo 13 mission to land on the moon for a third time in 1970.  When an explosion occurred on the space craft, the three astronauts are in jeopardy of dying if the scientists and engineers at NASA do not problem solve quickly and effectively. 

This represents an ill-defined problem that does not have an obvious solution.  The problems were recognized, and goals were clearly stated to the entire NASA team.  The goals were to keep the astronauts alive and return the space craft safely to Earth.  The scientists and engineers brainstormed ideas on how to solve this life or death problem.  It was critical that all available experts assisted in providing input based on their specialty area.  “When we approach a new situation, our knowledge based on prior experiences will influence our ability to define and represent the problem correctly” (Pretz, Naples, & Sternberg, 2003, p. 26).  The utilization of fractionation to break the problem into manageable parts resulted in scientists and engineers assigned to their areas of expertise.  There was frequent use of language (think/talk aloud) as information was transferred, discovered, and explained.  The use of prototypes was critical and illustrates the non-routine thinking that the team engaged in during problem solving.  The need for self-regulation occurred as the astronauts, engineers, and scientists endured stressful conditions and managed to maintain focus in order to accomplish the goal.  The process of questioning and searching for inconsistencies was engaged in as the attempt to build a prototype went through numerous iterations.  In addition, the social context played a pivotal role since the personalities involved in the solution were intelligent strong willed individuals that strived for success in everything they pursued.  James would state that the individual native reactions of emulation benefited the collective group.  “The spectacle of effort is what awakens and sustains our own effort” (James, 1899/2001, p. 27).  The individuals collaborated and pushed each other in a way that created an innovative, creative, and motivated environment.  James (1899/2001) stated, “genius is nothing but a power of sustained attention” (p. 51).  I think this quote by James reflects one of the main reasons for the success of the Apollo 13 team in the process of problem solving.

Looking at problem solving in the context of the classroom, Dan Meyer addressed how he revised his approach to teaching math.  He explained the difference between effective and ineffective ways to teach problem solving.  In most classrooms, the problems are well-defined and have straight forward solutions.  Meyer suggested that effective teaching involves engaging students in solving ill-defined problems where the solution is not obvious and causes the learner to think.  Teaching involves presenting the material in multiple ways that allow learners to make connections which in turn results in meaningful learning.  Meyer’s teaching philosophy may be best summarized with the following quote from James. “This principle of multiplying channels and varying associations and appeals is important, not only for teaching pupils to remember, but for teaching them to understand” (James, 1899/2001, p. 68).

Activity 6.1

Why is problem solving analogous to learning?
Problem solving (learning) occurs by assimilating or accommodating information that produces a change in behavior or capacity to behave.  When information is received, it may be assimilated to what is already known, and this would result in solving a well-defined problem that is straight forward, familiar, and easy to solve (assimilate).  In contrast, when novel information is received that does not fit into existing knowledge this creates an ill-defined problem which causes disequilibrium.  The process of accommodation and problem solving (learning) results in building knowledge structures (schemas) to resolve the problem (cognitive conflict) and the novel are made familiar.

Is all learning problem solving or do we learn without solving problems?
Problem solving is the cognitive process that defines meaningful learning.  Information processed through rote learning may be remembered in order to replicate and repeat the information, but will not be useful for non-routine thinking, accommodation, and problem solving.  For meaningful learning to occur through the problem solving process there must be time, energy, concentration, attention, and effort devoted.

Connection:
While I was the Assistant Dean of Nursing at BCTC, I dealt with a problem that involved a sensitive personnel issue.  I received numerous complaints from students and faculty about a faculty member who had body odor to the degree that it was disruptive to the classroom environment.  This was an ill-defined problem because there was not a clear step by step way to resolve the issue.  I preceded by gathering information to clarify and delineate (fractionation process) the presented novel problem.  I brainstormed strategies by talking to the Human Resource Department and colleagues who had handled similar situations.  The big picture developed (mental representation), and I was able to determine strategies that would produce the desired outcome (goal).  The plan evolved after exploration, questioning, and searching for discrepancies.  “To solve a problem, it often is necessary or, at least, desirable to try out several representations of the problem in order to hit upon one that leads to an acceptable solution” (Pretz, Naples, & Sternberg, 2003, p. 9).  After identifying several ways to address the problem, I role played the conversation (think/talk aloud) to test the content and delivery of this sensitive conversation.  The social context was also important to consider.  The situation involved numerous employees and students who were coming in contact with this male employee.  I also think the gender of the employee contributed to how I went about addressing this situation.  My knowledge base in health, wellness, and counseling was beneficial in responding to this problem.  I did not address this situation immediately.  I briefly removed myself from the issue (incubation period) in order to ensure that my proposed plan to address the problem still made sense after distancing myself from the issue.  The problem was resolved through a private, respectful, discerning conversation that centered on maintaining the individual’s dignity. 

The learning that occurred during this process was valuable, and this novel experience allowed me to accommodate this information, so it is now familiar.  This was beneficial when a similar problem emerged that involved a report that a female faculty member was dressing in what the person reporting considered inappropriate attire.  This situation was handled through a carefully crafted personal conversation.  The previous problem solving (learning) that transpired enabled me to easily address the new problem due to the structural similarity.  This is illustrated through the following quote, “rendering a goal familiar renders similar goals similarly familiar in the future” (as cited in Module 6 PowerPoint).  

Activity 5.4

The dual memory model of information processing is the theory of how the human brain processes information.  Information (input) enters the brain through sensory registers (sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell) through attention and perception the information may move to short-term memory (conscious thought).  Once in short-term memory it only remains for several seconds, and if connections are made it may move to long-term memory.  The information stays in the long-term memory (repository of knowledge) where it connects with other schemata (knowledge structures).  The process of retrieval happens when a cue or connection assists in bringing the information to the conscious.  According to Mayer (2012), the information processing model is critical to the instructional environment because it facilitates the cognitive learning process.

The Internet is changing the way we process information and how the brain functions. The mind quickly processes information while browsing, scrolling, and linking from page to page.  People use the Internet to socialize, shop, research, take classes, communicate, work, pay bills, and connect in every way possible.  This multitasking environment is viewed by many as an efficient way to achieve more in less time, and the availability of electronic devices makes it possible.  Rosen (2008) explains that media multitasking is resulting in a loss of productivity, loss of time, negative impact on learning, and diversion of attention.   

The electronic technology is creating a change in the way people interact and learn.  “Of all the sacrifices we make when we devote ourselves to the Internet as our universal medium, the greatest is likely to be the wealth of connections within our own minds” (Carr, 2011, p. 195).  The Internet may be a great supplement or complement to memory and learning, but it does not replace the complex biological process that happens in the brain when learning occurs.  Carr (2011) describes the Internet as the source for creating a habit of behavior in how information is processed that is detrimental to the full function and utilization of the brain.  Supporting the importance of the cognitive function of information processing James (1899/2001) states, “the more copious the associative systems, the completer the individual’s adaptations to the world” (p. 42).  In order to operate fully and efficiently in society one must keep in mind “…the art of remembering is the art of thinking…” (James, 1899/2001, p. 70).

The Internet is creating a culture of people who are outsourcing their memory to the computer.  The implications this may have for learning include an increased lack of attention, faulty memory, lack of interest, and the change of habits (that are not as productive).  In addition, the reliance on the computer is decreasing the ability to think deeply and make connections and associations that translate into meaning.  As Pinker (2002) noted, the human brain is critical in the individual’s ability to prosper in the world’s complex environment.  The computer has often been used as a metaphor for the brain, and now there are signs that the computer is becoming a substitute for many of the functions of the brain. 

Activity 5.2

Chapter 12 (Memory)

The ability to remember is dependent upon information and experiences connecting and creating associations through the skills of repetition, focus, and attention.  How is the memory affected by the time constraints of the fast-paced, multitasking, and complex world that reflects reality today?  Can we learn to adjust in a way that accommodates this new world with minimum negative implications to the memory?  In the classroom what are effective ways to create a balance between the attention and focus needed versus the fast-paced environment?

James (1899/2001) stated, “this principle of multiplying channels and varying associations and appeals is important, not only for teaching pupils to remember, but for teaching them to understand” (p. 68).  Teachers constantly strive to master the art of teaching by employing multiple strategies in order to accommodate the various ways an individual may connect with the information.  I use a variety of strategies in the classroom to enhance the opportunities for connections to be made.  Some examples of activities I use in the classroom are games (Jeopardy), PowerPoint, small group activities, scavenger hunts, bingo, puzzles, think-pair-share, reflective writing, one minute papers, You Tube videos, music, and movie clips.  Engaging a class with multiple means (impressions) for learning provides the opportunity for individuals to make associations.  The outcome will be connections that result in increased memory and understanding. 

Dewey (1916/1966) explained, “a well-trained mind is one that has a maximum of resources behind it, so to speak, and that is accustomed to go over its past experiences to see what they yield” (p. 157).  This quote explains Dewey’s thoughts on memory and how connections and associations assist in the retrieval of memories.  This illustrates the philosophical connection between James and Dewey that the mind is an associating machine.

Reference:

Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York, NY: The Free Press. (Original date of

     publication 1916).  

Activity 5.1

Here is what I know about information processing prior to reading module five.  The brain is the most complex and fascinating organ in the body and learning depends on how the brain processes information.  Information enters the brain by sensory registers (sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste) and then immediately flows to short-term memory.  After several seconds in the short-term memory it may be lost or move into long-term memory.  If the information makes it to long-term memory, it begins to connect with other experiences in this storage bank of knowledge.  Retrieval is the process of bringing the information back to consciousness.

How does information processing apply to memory?  The memory, since it is a function of the brain, is complex, and scientists continue to study and learn how the brain and memory work together.  In order for learning to occur, one must be able to use the information that has been input into the brain. Therefore, information must be retrieved.  If you cannot remember it does not mean you have not learned, maybe it means you cannot retrieve.  I am speculating that is why we only appear to remember a small fraction of what we have been taught.  To retrieve something may require special connections to stimulate the memory, and until those connections are linked the information stays in the long-term memory bank.  The smell of fresh baked bread may prompt a memory from grandma’s house that was forgotten, the sound of a song triggers a memory of a past event, a picture serves as a reminder of a memory that was forgotten until viewing the picture, or a key word or phrase activates the retrieval of information from a past lecture.  These are all examples of how information may be stored in the memory, but it may be difficult to retrieve (remember) without the appropriate connection.

Verbal recall is only one way of remembering information. For example, one may be able to remember a face, but not recall the name.  Thus, the person was not forgotten just the name.  When something unpleasant is remembered in a vivid way it is because the brain was shocked by that event, experience, or information.  A common illustration is the majority of adults remember exactly where they were on Tuesday, September 11, 2001, the day of the terrorists attacks on the United States.  These events created a traumatic emotional shock that the brain will not forget.  Typically, adults will be able to give explicit details of what they were doing at the moment they heard the news for the first time.    

Activity 5.3

Joshua Foer, science writer and the winner of the 2006 Memory Championship, explains his yearlong exploration of how the mind and memory work together.  He describes how the discipline of training and cultivating the memory appears to be a lost art.  The use of electronic computer devices has taken the place of efficiently using the memory.  Carr (2011) would agree with Foer that memory should not be outsourced to the computer since the mind continually shapes identity.  Dewey (1916/1966) stated, “excessive reliance upon others for data (whether got from reading or listening) is to be depreciated” (p.157).  This quote from Dewey highlights the view shared by Carr and Foer in regard to relying on other people and/or devices for thinking and memory. 

Foer explains how he creates imagined scenarios in order to generate associations with what he wants to remember.  James would agree with Foer that associations are critical to memory. “The ‘secret of a good memory’ is thus the secret of forming diverse and multiple associations with every fact we care to retain” (James, 1899/2001, p. 61).     

Foer emphasized that the keys to remembering are paying attention, engaging deeply in the process, connecting to the meaning of the information, and associating it to what is already known.  A personal observation for enhancing memory is to practice meditation and yoga. These activities, if practiced consistently, may enhance the ability to cultivate the memory by improving concentration, increasing attention, and sharpening focus.

Reference:

Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York, NY: The Free Press. (Original work

published 1916).   

Activity 4.5

Has the behavior of attention been replaced with the behavior of multitasking, and if so, how does this affect the classroom learning environment?  The American culture embraces the behavior of multitasking.  The perceived benefits of efficient use of time may not be a reality.  Rosen (2008) discussed in the article “The Myth of Multitasking” that research studies have revealed the behavior of multitasking is resulting in a loss of productivity, loss of time, negative impact on learning, and diversion of attention.

Henry David Thoreau stated, “simplicity, simplicity, simplicity!  I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb nail.”  This quote by Thoreau supports the concept that multitasking should be a limited behavior. 

I have observed college students engaging in media multitasking by responding to email, texting, surfing the internet, checking Facebook, and tweeting while simultaneously attempting to be present in class.  James (1899/2001) stated, “attention to an object is what takes place whenever that object most completely occupies the mind” (p. 54). The more complex the task, such as learning, the more focus and attention one must exert to the task to increase efficiency, productivity, and success. 

Reference:

Thoreau, H. D. (2013). Henry David Thoreau quotes. Retrieved from

     http://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/10264.Henry_David_Thoreau

Activity 4.4

Chapter 11 (Attention)

Attention (voluntary or passive) is attained by eliciting interest from within the individual, and this occurs by connecting new information with prior knowledge.

Connections:

For the past five years, I have taught a life skills course at a federal prison for female inmates.   The key objectives are promoting relationship skills, self-esteem, respect, and personal growth.  One of the struggles is that each class will have a wide range of educational levels.  My goal is to identify assignments, readings, and activities that all women will be able to connect with regardless of their educational level.  These connections are essential to spark interest and maintain attention.  I have found that keeping Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in mind is helpful in finding broad ways to elicit the interest of the inmates.  I specifically concentrate on social, esteem, and self-actualization needs in working with the inmates.  Also, by following James’ (1899/2001) philosophy of showing my interest in the topics this helps to generate the interest of the class participants. 

An example of creating attention and interest in a reading course occurs in the first stage of the SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite, review) strategy for reading.  The first step is to survey the reading material, and one of the components of the survey step is for readers to see what they already know about the topic.  This creates attention, excitement, and purpose for the reader.  It also allows readers to connect with the information they already know or want to know more about related to the topic.  The survey portion of the SQ3R reading strategy supports the idea of connecting what one already knows with what is being taught, and then the attention of the learner is captured.

Chapter 12 (Apperception)

Apperception is the process of taking information into the mind and efficiently processing and integrating it with what one already knows.

Connections:

Prior to beginning a new routine it is important to prepare in multiple ways.  Preparation is essential to ensuring a greater chance of achieving the new behavior.  James (1899/2001) would agree that to begin a new habit one must prepare in all ways possible to ensure success.  For example, when someone decides to engage in a new weight loss behavior part of the preparation is to determine personal readiness.  “Readiness is the possession of behaviors, attitudes, skills, and concomitant resources that make it possible for individuals to incorporate a new health behavior into a permanent lifestyle” (Girdano, Dusek, & Everly, 2009, p. 379).  The first step in the readiness stage is knowledge.  This involves learning about the behavior one is trying to incorporate.  In the weight loss example, the individual may select to learn about nutrition, exercise, and current health history.  This step would involve apperception of this information followed by integrating this new knowledge with what one already knows.  The process of apperception will be experienced differently by each person.  The individual may read, watch videos, consult a professional, and research the internet or a combination of ways may be utilized to take in this new information.   Through these experiences, the mind will efficiently process this new information to incorporate the new knowledge with what one already knows.

I participated in a book club discussion on the book, Leadership and the New Science: Discovering Order in a Chaotic World by Margaret Wheatley.  Looking back on the discussion I realize that each person had a slightly different understanding of the book.  The process of taking in information (reading the book) and integrating it with what one already knows was different for each person due to prior knowledge and experiences. 

The following passage was one of the discussion points from the book.  “We live in a universe where relationships are primary.  Nothing happens in the quantum world without something encountering something else.  Nothing exists independent of its relationships” (Wheatley, 2006, p. 69).  The discussion was fascinating due to the diversity of backgrounds, experiences, and knowledge of the individuals participating.  Of course, there were some people who had similar views, but the majority brought forth discussion points that varied based on how they had apperceived the passage and then integrated this new knowledge with what they already knew.  

References:

Girdaon, D. A., Dusek, D. E., & Everly, G.S. (2009). Controlling Stress and Tension. San

Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc. 

James, W. (2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's

ideals. Mineola, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1899).

Wheatley, M. J. (2006). Leadership and the new science: Discovering order in a chaotic world.

San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Activity 4.3

In the past, I was a supporter of learning styles.  Matching instruction to an individual learning style appears to be a practice embedded in a common sense approach based on perceptions of what works.  However, based on the conclusions from the research of Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, and Bjork (2009) and numerous other studies, the learning styles concept has not proven to be valid.  Education is a field that should adhere to evidence based practice.  What is the intent of educational research if it is not to inform policy and practice in education?

“The contrast between the enormous popularity of the learning styles approach within education and the lack of credible evidence for its utility is, in our opinion, striking and disturbing” (Pashler et al., 2009, p. 117).  The concept of learning styles promotes that instruction should be tailored to an individual’s style of learning.  There is common agreement that people learn differently and have different abilities and styles.  It has not been proven that a student’s learning improves if teaching is connected to a learning style.  Do learning styles have a place in education?  How has commercialization of learning styles through assessments influenced the field of education? 

I teach first-year experience courses and almost every text book has a section on learning styles.  The learning styles approach is widely used in the field of education, and if incorporated into the curriculum should be balanced with a discussion about the limitations.  Students should be aware that research does not support the concept that learning is enhanced when the instruction is geared to the individual learning style.  It is useful for students to know about different approaches to learning and how different methods have value in advancing meaning.  James (1899/2001) would advocate that the skill and genius of the teacher is of utmost importance.  Utilizing a variety of creative instructional methods in the classroom is the most effective approach for a teacher to enhance and support learning.

“Thus, educational psychology students and aspiring teachers are being taught that students have particular learning styles and that these styles should be accommodated by instruction tailored to those learning styles” (Pashler et al., 2009, p. 105).  This statement is concerning because students are being trained in a way that is not supported by evidenced based theories.  Skinner (1984) would cite the teaching of learning styles as another example to include in his article “The Shame of American Education.”  One issue that Skinner (1984) addressed was that theories are learned in schools of education, and must be taught effectively, or this creates dire consequences for learning. 

References:

James, W. (2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's

ideals. Mineola, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1899).

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2009). Learning styles: Concepts and

evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 105-119.

Skinner, B. F. (1984). The shame of American education. American Psychologist, 39(9), 947-954. 

Activity 4.2

I learned that the time I spent with the information (duration) and the amount (capacity) of information presented had an impact on what I could remember.  Also, the more familiar I was with an object the easier it was to remember.  The task of remembering the various countries was a challenge (complex task) because I do not use the names of countries routinely.  When asked to remember numbers after the attractiveness rating I was not able to remember any numbers.  This was a great example of interference that was mentioned in the PowerPoint slide.  I was a member of group B for exercise fourteen related to meaningfulness in recall.  I was able to recall all but one of the answers.  This validated that meaningfulness of associations (familiarity) helped overcome the interference (time delay) in answering the questions.  As a side note, my cell phone rang during one of the exercises.  I did not answer, but it was a distraction that effected my ability to concentrate.

These were great exercises that allowed me to experience how my short term memory works.  I was not surprised by my results.  It is challenging for me to remember information that is intended for short term memory.

Activity 4.1

Link to TED talk:
http://www.ted.com/talks/sarah_jayne_blakemore_the_mysterious_workings_of_the_adolescent_brain.html

The readings and PowerPoints for module four discussed the dual memory model of processing information.  I was curious as to how cognitive development would influence the way an individual processes information.  I found a TED talk by Sarah-Jane Blakemore titled "The Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain."  Blakemore discusses the importance of understanding the development of the adolescent brain in order to create an environment that provides the best opportunity for development.  This research provides educators information to consider when determining teaching strategies for adolescents and individuals in the age range of 20s and 30s. 

The period of adolescence is a critical time in the development of the brain.  The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is responsible for processes such as planning, organizing, decision making, social interactions, controlling inappropriate behavior, self-awareness, and inhibitions.  During adolescence, there is a dramatic development and change that is occurring in this part of the brain.  According to James (1899/2001), “but the larger categories of conception, the sorts of thing, and wider classes of relation between things, of which we take cognizance, are all got into the mind at a comparatively youthful date” (p. 81).  This statement by James reinforces the research of Blakemore that during this developmental time the learning that takes place is critical and may have lifelong effects.

The medial prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is involved in social decisions.  This part of the brain decreases in activity during adolescence.  This explains why adolescents struggle with the ability to take into account the perspective of someone else in guiding their behavior.

This research provides information for educators that may be used to inform curriculum design and teaching strategies.  Since the brain is more adaptive and malleable, this presents a great opportunity for educators to capitalize on the social and educational learning that needs to occur during this stage of cognitive development. It is important for educators to realize the part of the brain responsible for social decisions decreases in activity during adolescence.  This will impact learning, and this is an element of cognitive development that needs to be considered in the overall scope of the learning environment.

James (1899/2001) realized the importance of the teacher in engaging the adolescent while the brain was in this stage of growth and development.  Information processed during this time has lifelong effects on the learner.   James (1899/2001) states, “and it may well solemnize a teacher, and confirm in him a healthy sense of the importance of his mission, to feel how exclusively dependent upon his present ministrations in the way of imparting conceptions the pupil’s future life is probably bound to be” (p. 82).

Reference:

James, W. (2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's

ideals. Mineola, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1899).